Kelly DeVries stated that 'no person of the Middle Ages, male or female, has been the subject of more study than Joan of Arc. She has been portrayed as a saint, heretic, religious zealot, seer, demented teenager, proto-feminist, aristocratic wanna-be, saviour of France, person who turned the tide of the Hundred Years War'. Gordon (2001) described her as 'a mystery girl who came from nowhere'. She was an intelligent girl. According to Gordon (2001), 'Joan came into the world tainted by political and economic disorder'. Attempts have been made to understand Joan of Arc since the fifteenth century. She’s one of the most puzzling individuals that ever lived, and this paper adds the possibility of anorexia nervosa and autism spectrum disorder to the speculation. A single categorical diagnosis is unlikely ever to describe her. Gordon (2001) noted her 'singularity and single-mindedness', which can be seen in persons with autism, and she was in addition, erratic and self-contradictory.
Background and childhood:
She was reared on a farm, where she looked after the animals. Her father was a low-ranking individual. He 'represented the town in the local assizes'. She had no formal schooling. She stated that in her teen years, 'there was no one superior to her in sewing and spinning', (Gordon, 2001). She appears to have been somewhat distant from her family.
Temporal lobe epilepsy:
D’Orsi and Tinuper (2016), suggested 'idiopathic partial epilepsy with auditory features'. They also suggest that 'auditory hallucinations and occasionally visual hallucinations are symptoms of epilepsy', (Miller, 2022). The voices Joan said could be set off by the sound of bells and could occur during sleep. They occurred episodically. This hypothesis remains unproven.
Tuberology:
Ratnasuriya (1986) suggested that she may have had tuberculosis because she worked on a farm and may have got it from the cattle. This could also explain the amenorrhea and the possible intercranial tumours linking to hallucinations. While it’s not possible to rule this out, she had too much energy for a person with tuberculosis.
Hallucination: A question of schizophrenia?
Ratnasuriya (1986) stated that 'she was about thirteen when she first heard voices'. The description of this first experience is quoted in Smith’s Joan of Arc: 'she had a voice from God to help her to know what to do and on this first occasion she was very much afraid. She heard the voices upon the right side and rarely heard it without accompanying brightness … after she heard this voice upon three occasions, she understood that it was the voice of an angel'. 'She later went on to claim that she heard and saw St. Michael, St. Catherine and St. Margaret'. Gordon (2001) notes that Joan was extremely pious and had experienced visions involving angels and saints, both the quality of her visions and the shape of her life mark her as radically different from the mystics who preceded her. The language and imagery of the great mystics is hypersexualised and hyper specific in its accumulation of physical detail'. This made her unique and different from them. Brother Richard was a mystic and Joan 'shared her devotion to the cult of the Holy Name', (Gordon, 2001). At her later trial, one of the Judges asked her if St. Michael was naked and she replied, 'do you think God cannot afford to clothe him', (Gordon, 2001). Gordon (2001) noted that she was 'moved by a religious vision' and spoke of 'the delights of the presence of her voices' and 'she understood herself to be constantly and palpably in the company of the Divine'. 'She was loyal to her voices, whose divine source she never doubted', (Gordon, 2001). She did obey and was controlled by the voices – one of the reasons schizophrenia was considered. The voices were dear to her. The hallucinations did not lead her to go into a nunnery but 'into battle', (Gordon, 2001), which meant killing and spilling of blood which makes her very contradictory. She was emotionally immature. John Huizinga (Gordon, 2001) 'suggested Joan’s expressing her experience as divinely sent voices was uncommon but not bizarre for the time, that to the contemporary framework of understanding, it was no more odd than a twentieth century person speaking of her unconscious or outer space or relativity. He vehemently denies that her voices are pathological, and his work has not hesitated in pointing to the pathology of the age in which she lived. Her experience was unusual, he says, but it was not disturbed'. Clearly, Joan’s voices as a cultural phenomenon has to be considered. Huizinga (1970), stated that 'if every inspiration that comes to me with such commanding urgency that it is heard as a voice is to be condemned out of hand by a learned qualification of a morbid symptom, a hallucination, who would not rather stand with Joan of Arc and Socrates than with the faculty of the Sorbonne and that of the sane'. Gordon (2001) notes 'Joan’s highly developed understanding of symbolic action and its power. She is (capable) of explaining a complex and multi-faceted idea'. This goes totally against schizophrenia. Beavan et al, (2011) showed in a paper on The prevalence of voice-hearers in the general population, that 'the findings support the current movement away from pathological models of unusual experiences and towards understanding voice-hearing as a continuum in the general population and having a meaning in relation to the voice-hearer’s life experience'. This would fit exactly with Joan’s hallucinations. Beavan et al, (2011) state the median for hallucinations in the general population was 13.2%. There is clearly no one to one relationship between hallucinations and schizophrenia. Hallucinations can also occur in high-functioning autism, other psychotic disorders and drug abuse. In DSM 5, (APA, 2013), it is written that in 'some cultures, visual and auditory hallucinations with a religious content (hearing God’s voice) are a part of religious experience'. This is where Joan’s voices belong and not in schizophrenia. Indeed, hallucinations are only one feature of schizophrenia, and one cannot make a diagnosis based solely on them. What Joan described were classic ‘hallucinations which came to her as being vivid and clear, with the full force of normal perceptions, and not under voluntary control and they occurred in a clear sensorium', (APA, 2013). APA (2013) also concludes that hallucinations may be a normal part of religious experience in certain cultural contexts. This last (APA, 2013), sentence is the one that explain Joan of Arc’s hallucinations. Joan felt that she had 'a divine mandate', (Gordon, 2001). This would fit with the cultural and religious mores of the fifteenth century. Joan showed an ability to deal with learned doctors, with equanimity for she repeatedly suggested that … her Judge’s refer to the record of Poitier’s and stop wasting her time'. This also shows her sanity, if not tact.
Anorexia nervosa:
Gordon (2001), noted that 'Joan took pleasure in her body not as an eating body or a body that aroused or experienced sexual desires but as a body that wore clothes, used them for display, as a body that rode horses … as an active body that led men and wielded a sword'. Nevertheless, Gordon (2001) did note a comment about her 'lovely breasts'. This suggests some normality in that physical area. She 'ate very little and without formality', (Gordon, 2001). Gordon (2001) noted that, 'she didn’t care much about food', and was abstemious, 'at table'. Even after battle, she was known to eat only a few pieces of bread dipped in wine … her lack of appetite for the food was seen as an indication of her worthiness or superiority'. In addition, 'Joan did not menstruate', (Gordon, 2001). This can be associated with anorexia nervosa. Gordon (2001) suggests that 'Joan’s reluctance to eat more than the minimum needed for her survival suggests that she might not be taking in the proper number of calories to encourage menstruation. The combination of extreme physical activity, extreme stress and the minimum of food easily explains Joan’s not menstruating'. Gordon (2001), stated that 'the sexual allure of boyishness attaches not to strength but to lightness'. 'Joan took pleasure in her body, not as an eating body or a body that aroused or experienced sexual desires, but as a body that wore clothes and used them for display, as a body that rode horses and was admired on horseback, as an active body that led men and wielded a sword'. She had no admiration for the female body. We don’t know what she thought about body weight but ate little, was not interested in female sexual interests. She was a perfectionist, high achiever, had expectations and of course anorexia nervosa can overlap with a neurodevelopmental disorder like autism.
Personality:
At her Trial, she resisted 'their (Judge’s) charge of witchcraft' and maintained 'the integrity of her position on her voices', (Gordon, 2001). 'It is no easier to understand Joan as a religious figure than as a political or military one. She burst out of categories, criss-crosses about her, contradicts the images she has presented about herself', (Gordon, 2001). The voices charged her with the job of 'crowning the Dauphin King of France', (Gordon, 2001). This is not a religious task although she made it religious by stating that 'my Lord wants the Dauphin to be made King', (Gordon, 2001). She was a most contradictory personality who spoke with certainty and moved men to do what she wanted, including Royalty. She was mesmeric. Gordon, (2001) noted that 'fifteenth-century Church doctors had no trouble placing prophecy alongside testimony, garnered through legal investigation, and weighing both'. With her personality, Joan showed extreme 'naivete'. She had an 'impetuous, hubristic nature', (Gordon, 2001). She could be 'aggressive', and full of 'rage', (Gordon, 2001). She had an 'extraordinary physical courage and stamina', (Gordon, 2001). She was controlling, dominating and had narrow interests. She had poor political judgement later and could not adapt to new situations. She had preservation of sameness in her battle plans. She became a victim of misogynism. She inspired her troops, was courageous and loved to display her standards. She knew the importance of exhibiting herself as a warrior to the troops and put on 'white armour', 'a short gold jacket', an 'elaborate dress' and 'she revelled in this power', among her troops, (Gordon, 2001).
Truthfulness?
In relation to a prisoner who was found guilty 'she went back on her word, her parole, sacred to the idea of chivalry', (Gordon, 2001).
Creative psychopathy:
Henderson (1939) suggested that Joan had creative psychopathy. This does not fit well. I assume he meant her achievements in the military area. Gordon (2001), noted that, 'she was younger than anyone she rode beside and in all importance rooms of her life, she was alone among her elders'.
Other aspects of personality:
She was naive and foolhardy in her management of later battles. She was controlling, dominating, egocentric and not relating satisfactorily to her army officers. When she was captured, she was pulled 'by the garment that she wore out of love of display … and it was on horseback that she presented her most inspiring version of herself' (Gordon, 2001). She was exhibitionistic, 'loved display' and 'elaborate dress' and was a 'master of symbols, but the symbols she chose were simple and easily read', (Gordon, 2001). 'She loved her standard' and 'she had no interest in courtship or the conventions of courtly love', (Gordon, 2001). Her only interest was in serving God. Gordon, (2001) notes that she was, 'fearless and timeless and her courage never flagged'. She was excited by the power and control she had in battle. Even after her capture, she remained grandiose and felt that she would triumph at her Trial. She felt that she was safe with God and her voices. What was important to her was her internal relationship with God and not external judges. She tried to escape imprisonment which goes against this personal omnipotent thinking. She later said she was wrong to try to escape and that the voices were against this. At her Trial, 'she was fearless and ……. her devoutness, her lack of concern about defying the power of the Church is astounding'. It suggests an autistic trait or a psychopathic trait. It suggests some problem with theory of mind. There was something novelty-seeking or sensation-seeking in her interaction with the Judges.
Narcissistic personality disorder:
In some ways, there was a narcissistic grandiose component to her personality. At the Trial she avoided 'understatement', (Gordon, 2001). This may have been part of her narcissism. At her Trial, she emphasized 'the primacy of her own vision over the authority of the Church', (Gordon, 2001). She turned the Judges against her. Joan 'set herself up as superior to the authority of the Church', (Gordon, 2001). This could be seen as narcissistic grandiosity. She was narcissistic, grandiose and megalomaniacal in some of the credit she took for military success and also showed 'taunting arrogance', (Gordon, 2001). She recognized no limits. Another aspect of her narcissism was her 'boastfulness'. Gordon, (2001) noted that 'the bravado of her tone is extravagant to the point of delusion'. She described herself as 'chief of war', (self-appointed) and stated that she was 'sent by God, the King of Heaven, body for body to drive you out (enemies) of all France', (Gordon, 2001). This was very grandiose and almost omnipotent. She showed 'confident aggressiveness' and 'mastery', (Gordon, 2001). She did not inspire loyalty after her failures in battle. After she was captured, no one came to her aide. Like persons with narcissistic personality disorder, (APA, 2013), she was preoccupied with thoughts of unlimited success and power. She believes she was special. She had a sense of entitlement. She had a grandiose sense of her own self-importance, showed a lack of empathy, could be dominant and arrogant. She had identity diffusion, intimacy problems and narcissistic rage and anger. She had no insight into her personality.
Autism spectrum disorder?
She had problems in social communication and behaviour. She had problems making friends. She was a loner, eccentric, solitary and had preservation of sameness. She wore the same clothes repeatedly. She had narrow interests. She was naive and had problems reading other people’s minds.
Cross-dressing and identity:
Susan Crane, (1996), comments 'Joan of Arc wore men’s clothes almost continually from her first attempts to reach the Dauphin, later crowned Charles VII, until her execution twenty-eight months later. In Court, on campaigns, in Church and in the street, she cross-dressed, and she refused to stop doing so during the long months of her Trial for heresy. Joan’s contemporary supporters and adversaries, comment extensively on her clothing and the records of her Trial provides commentary of her own, making her by far the best-documented transvestite of the later Middle Ages'. Central to her cross-dressing was that it was compulsive and extremely important to her, even if she said it was a minor issue. ………..she would not desist, and it was one of the final reasons for her burning at the state. She described the wearing of male clothes as the 'commandment of God and his angels', (Pernoud et al, 1998). In terms of transvestic disorder, (APA, 2013) we don’t know if there were any sexual fantasies or arousal in relation to it. She had a massive urge to do it and it was compulsive. She was charged with 'idolatrous transvestism'. Going against transgender was that 'she refused to give up the identity of a woman', (Gordon, 2001). She said she wore male clothes to protect her from rape. 'Amongst men at arms she was happiest', (Gordon, 2001). This shows a masculine identification.
The Trial:
The trial judges were sadistic and misogynistic. Joan nevertheless did enjoy 'the performance aspect of the Trial', (Gordon, 2001). This was part of her exhibitionism and sensation-seeking. She saw herself as superior to the Judges. She was tried as a heretic in an 'inquisition-type Trial'. Gordon (2001) described it as a 'great witchcraft Trial'.
Conclusion:
Joan was narcissistic, grandiose, controlling, dominating, emotionally immature with sexual identity diffusion. She had poor social relationships but was a great leader of men in battle. She did not have schizophrenia. Her psychopathology was on the personality spectrum and neurodevelopmental spectrum. She had poor reciprocal social relationships, preservation of sameness, narrow interests. She didn’t really have a male identity because she called herself 'Joan the Maid'. She was not sexually attracted to men, as a female. She was androgynous.
- Michael Fitzgerald, Former Professor of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry
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